shad darshan - hindu philosophy

Shad Darshan

Sanatan Dharam has six systems of philosophy, which is called Shad Darshan. The six darshans are - Nyaya, Vaisheshik, Samkhya, Yog, Purva Mimansa and Uttar Mimansa or Vedanta, originated by sages - Aksapada, Kanada, Patanjali, Kapila, Jaimini and Veda Vyas respectively. They generally deal with four topics:

1. Existence and nature of Brahman 
2. Nature of the jiva or the individual soul
3. Creation of the jagat or the world
4. Moksha or liberation and the disciplines that lead to it

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​Nyaya

Nyaya: "System, rule; logic, analytic." Its tools of enquiry and rules for argumentation were adopted by all schools of Hinduism. Nyaya Darshan propounded by Akshapad Gautam son of rishi (sage) Deeraghatama in 4th Century, is on the existence of an external world. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance). Moksha (liberation), is gained through right knowledge.

It seeks to prove Parmatma’s existence based on following arguments:

• World which is an effect requires an efficient cause (by knowledge & power). That is parmatma.
• There is orderliness in created world. It reveals intelligent design. As the originator of this design, as controller of the physical order, Parmatama must exist.
• Just as there is a physical order, there is a moral order too, which dispenses justice in accordance with deservingness. Hence there is moral governor. He is paramatma.
• There is negative proof. No atheist has so far proved non-existence of paramatma.

Paramatma is disguised from jivatma. Guided by past karmas of jivatmas, paramatma creates, protects and destroys the universe and re-creates it.
Ultimate goal of Spiritual aspirant is ascertaining truth by applying the 16 padaraths or categories viz. means of knowledge (praman),  objects of inquiry (prmeya), doubts (samshay), purpose (prayojan), examples (drushtant), established principles (siddhant), syllogistic premise (avayava), confutation (tarka), decisive ascertainment (vad), arguing constructively and destructively (jalpa), mere destructive argument of the opposition (vitanda) but not consolidating one’s stance, fallacious reason (hetvabhasha) in vitanda, quibbling (chala), futile objections (jati).    
The number of means of knowledge (pramans) under Nyaya system are four viz. pratyaksh (perception), anuman (inference), upaman (comparison) and shabda (testimony, may be vedic or by trustworthy authority).

Vaisheshika

Vaishehika: Naturalism or atomism. Vaisheshika Darshan (370 Sutras, 10 chapters) was founded by Kaṇāda Kashyapa around the 2nd century BC. It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), and one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substances (a function of atoms, and their count and spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. And  liberation is attained through understanding the nature of existence.

Nyaya and Vaisheshika are viewed as a complementary pair - with Nyaya emphasizing logic and Vaisheshika analyzing the nature of the world. 
 
Vaisheshika Darshan deals with the following aspects:

1. Dravya (substance): There are 9 substances - pṛthvī (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire), vāyu (air), ākaśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space), ātman (self or soul) and manas (mind). The first five are called bhūtas, the substances having some specific qualities so that they could be perceived by one or the other external senses.
2. Guṇa (quality): The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra mentions 17 guṇas (qualities), to which Praśastapāda added another 7. While a substance is capable of existing independently by itself, a guṇa(quality) cannot exist so. The original 17 guṇas (qualities) are, rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), sparśa (touch), saṁkhyā (number), parimāṇa (size/dimension/quantity), pṛthaktva (individuality), saṁyoga (conjunction/accompaniments), vibhāga (disjunction), paratva (priority), aparatva (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure), duḥkha (pain), icchā (desire), dveṣa (aversion) and prayatna (effort). To these Praśastapāda added gurutva (heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (viscosity), dharma (merit), adharma (demerit), śabda (sound) and saṁskāra (faculty).
3. Karma (activity): The karmas (activities) like guṇas (qualities) have no separate existence, they belong to the substances. But while a quality is a permanent feature of a substance, an activity is a transient one. Ākāśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space) and ātman (self), though substances, are devoid of karma (activity).

 

1. Sāmānya (generality): Since there is plurality of substances, there will be relations among them. When a property is found common to many substances, it is called sāmānya.
2. Viśeṣa (particularity): By means of viśeṣa, we are able to perceive substances as different from one another. As the ultimate atoms are innumerable so are the viśeṣas.
3. Samavāya (inherence): Kaṇāda defined samavāya as the relation between the cause and the effect. Praśastapāda defined it as the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained. The relation of samavāya is not perceivable but only inferable from the inseparable connection of the substances.

It accepted only two reliable means to knowledge: perception and inference.

Sankhya

Sankhya: "Enumeration, reckoning, relating to numbers." A philosophy founded by the sage Kapila (5th century BC), author of the Sankhya Sutras. Sankhya is realistic, dualistic and pluralistic darshan.

• Realistic - jagat (world) is real in contrast to vedant-ic system of philosophy, which believes that the world is unreal and evolved from the real (Brahman).
  
• Dualistic - it has two different entities i.e. purush (jiva) & prakriti (nature).
  
• Pluralistic - it believes in manifold purushs, not just one. When Jiva attains knowledge, it is separated from prakriti and becomes eternally pure, i.e. it attains mukti (liberation) from prakriti.
  

The philosophy revolves around the interaction of prakṛti and purusha. Prakṛti remains unmanifested as long as the three gunas - sattva, rajas & tamas - are in equilibrium. This equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed when prakṛti comes into proximity with consciousness or Purusha. The disequilibrium of the gunas triggers an evolution that leads to the manifestation of the world from an unmanifested prakṛti.

It aims to acquire vivek – to discriminate between purush and prakriti through knowledge of the 25 tattvas:

1. Two tattvas are Purusha and Prakkrti. Prakṛti caused evolution of intellect which led further evolution. 
   
2. Internal instruments (3)- Intellect (Buddhi or Mahat), Ego-sense or self-consciousness (Ahamkāra), Mind (Manas)       
   
3. External instruments (10)      - Five Sense organs (Jnānendriyas), Five Organs of action (Karmendriyas)
   
4. Subtle elements    Form (5) - (Rupa), Sound (Shabda), Smell (Gandha), Taste (Rasa), Touch (Sparsha).       
   
5. Gross elements (5) - Earth (Prithivi), Water (Jala), Fire (Agni), Air (Vāyu), Ether (Ākāsha).
   

Dominance of sattva causes the evolution of the five organs of perception, five organs of action and the mind. Dominance of tamas triggers the evolution of five subtle elements – sound, touch, sight, taste, and smell from self-consciousness. These five subtle elements are themselves evolvents and cause the creation of the five gross elements - space, air, fire, water and earth. Rajas is cause of action in the evolutes. Purusha is pure consciousness absolute, eternal and subject to no change. It is neither a product of evolution, nor the cause of any evolute.
Prakriti, out of which all things evolve, is the unity of the three gunas: sattva, rajas and tamas. If Sattva increases, Rajas & Tamas decreases and vice versa. Sankhya and Yoga are considered an inseparable pair whose principles permeate all of Hinduism.

Yoga

Yoga: joining." Ancient tradition of philosophy and practice codified by Patanjali (2nd century BC) in the Yoga Sutras. It is also known as raja yoga - "king of yogas," or ashtanga yoga - "eight-limbed yoga." Its objective is to achieve, at will, the cessation of all fluctuations of consciousness, and the attainment of Self Realization. Yoga is wholly dedicated to putting the high philosophy of Hinduism into practice, to achieve personal transformation through transcendental experience, samadhi. Râja-Yoga is divided into eight steps. Yama and Niyama, as we see, are moral trainings; without these as the basis no practice of Yoga will succeed. As these two become established, the Yogi will begin to realise the fruits of his practice; without these it will never bear fruit. Pratyahara, Dharna, Dhyan and Samadhi. Pratyâhâra, or restraint of the senses from their objects; Dhâranâ, or fixing the mind on a spot; Dhyâna, or meditation; and Samâdhi, or superconsciousness. The mind can exist on a still higher plane, the superconscious.

1. Yama - (5) – (non-injuring others by thought, word or deed; Truthfulness; Asteya (i.e. not taking others’ goods by stealth or by force), Brahamacharya (continence i.e. self-control, chastity by thought, word and deed), and Aparigraha (i.e. non-receiving of any gifts from others)
   
2. Niyama (5)– Tapas (austerity); Svâdhyâya (study); Santosha (contentment); Shaucha (purity or cleanliness both external & internal); Ishvara-pranidhâna (worshipping and self-surrender God).
   
3. Asana (over 200) - Then comes Âsana, or posture. The only thing to understand about it is leaving the body free, holding the chest, shoulders, and head straight.
   
4. Pranayama - Then comes Pranayama. Prana means the vital forces in one's own body, Âyâma means controlling them. There are three sorts of Pranayama, the very simple, the middle, and the very high. Pranayama is divided into three parts: filling, restraining, and emptying.
   

1. Pratyahara - One who has succeeded in attaching or detaching his mind to or from the centres of senses at will has succeeded in Pratyahara.
   
2. Dharna - After you have practised Pratyahara for a time, take the next step, the Dhâranâ, holding the mind to certain points. Forcing the mind to feel certain parts of the body to the exclusion of others.
   
3. Dhyana - When one wave only is left in the mind. This is Dhyana, meditation. When the mind has been trained to remain fixed on a certain internal or external location, there comes to it the power of flowing in an unbroken current, as it were, towards that point. This state is called Dhyana.
   
4. Samadhi - When one has so intensified the power of Dhyana as to be able to reject the external part of perception and remain meditating only on the internal part, the meaning, that state is called Samadhi. The three — Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi — together, are called Samyama.
   

 
Purva Mimamsa

Purva Mimamsa: "Inquiry" (or Purva, "early," Karma Mimamsa or Karma Kanda), Ritualism. Founded by Jaimini (dating back to 2th century BC), taught the correct performance of Vedic mantras & rituals (Samhitas and Brahmanas) as the means to liberation.

Karma is broadly classified into five types as follows:

1. Nitya Karma – Daily Obligatory Duties
   
2. Naimittika Karma - Occasional Obligatory duties
   
3. Kamya Karma – Rites done to attain desired results like Jyotistoma Yaga for reaching Heaven
   
4. Prayaschitta Karma – Rites for expiation of sins
   
5. Nishiddha Karma – Forbidden action like killing, drinking etc
   

Vedanta

Vedanta (or Uttara "later" Mimamsa or Jnanakanda): Jñānakāṇḍa deals with the meditation, reflection and knowledge of Self, Oneness, Brahman (the Upaniṣads said to be 108).
 
The teaching of Vedånta is that there is one absolute reality - brahman. Man is one with brahman, and the object of life is to realize that truth through right knowledge, intuition and personal experience. The Vedanta Sutras (or Brahma Sutras) were composed by Rishi Badaråyana (400 BC).

There are various commentaries on the Vedanta. However, post Buddhistic commentators are Shankara (Advaita, non-dualistic form), Ramanuja (Vishishtadvait, qualified non-dualistic form), Nimbark (Dvaitavait), Madhava (Dvait, dualistic form) and Vallabh (Shudhadvait).


References:

1. http://veda.wikidot.com/shad-darshana
2. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/99ed/84c9c959fb782c8eeca3b3b789af29568fbf.pdf
3. Pantanjali yogpradeep by Shri Omanand Teerth, published by Gita press Gorakhpur.
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
5. The complete works of Swami Vivekananda, Mayavati Memorial Edition, Volume I, Advaita Ashrama
6. Rishis, Mystics & Heros of India volume 1 by Sadhu Mukundcharandas, Swaminarayan Aksharpith, Shahibaugh Road, Amdavad - 4, India