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Indra is the most powerful God in the pantheon of the Rigveda. He has been king of Devas and rules heaven (third of upper seven Lokas), with his capital in Amaravati. Indra is God thunder and lightning. His favourite weapon is the thunderbolt – Vajra. Twashta designed this deadly weapon for Indra. He is associated with somrasa, a kind of herbal medicine. Dyou is Indra’s father. Agni and Pusha are his brothers and Indraani (Shachi Devi) is his wife. His most lauded activity was the destroying of the demon Vṛtra using his famed vajra — diamond thunderbolt. Indra finds also mention in Buddhist and Jain literatures.
The appearance, importance, significance and a few select Rigvedic hymns are discussed hereunder. Indra in Rigveda: Indra is the king of all Devas in Rigveda. Indra has been extolled in 1028 suktas (250 hymns and about 300 hymns refer to him in association with other Gods) of Rigveda. A few verses in praise of Indra are mentioned here:
It is not certain what today or tomorrow will yield to us. Who knows that what is wonderful? The mind of another person is unsteady and it must be comprehended well. Failing in its deep study also goes waste. Commentary – The governing idea of the hymn belongs to a stage of spiritual progress when the human soul wishes by the sheer force of Thought to hasten forward beyond in order to reach prematurely the source of all things without full development of the being in all its progressive stages of conscious activity. The effort is opposed by the Gods who preside over the universe of man and of the world and a violent struggle takes place in the human consciousness between the individual soul in its egoistic eagerness and the universal Powers which seek to fulfil the divine purpose of the Cosmos.
English translation: O Indra, you protect highly learned persons, who are preservers like the prana. Such persons have the power of endurance. You ward off anger and insult, and face all pains and challenges of opponents in the discharge of duties, and uphold truth. Support us, so that we may acquire true knowledge of soul and strength and comprehend the nature of the soul.
“They have styled (him, the Sun), Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is the celestial, well-winged Garud (bird), for learned priests call one by many names as they speak of Agni, Yama, Wind.”
“I invoke, at repeated sacrifice, Indra, the preserver, the protector, the hero, who is easily propitiated, Indra, the powerful, the invoked of many; may Indra, the lord of affluence, bestow upon us prosperity.”
“The most exalted, the humblest, (invoke) Indra; the middle (classes) invoke Indra; those going, those stopping, (invoke) Indra; those dwelling at home, those going in battle, (invoke) Indra; men needing food invoke Indra.”
“We invoke that Indra who is the destroyer of mighty foes, the supervisor (of all things); do you, the many organed, the protector of the good, the distributor of wealth, be unto us (the insurer of) success in combats.” Appearance of Indra: According to the Viṣṇudharmottarapuraṇa, an ancient Sanskrit text the image of Indra (also called Sakra) should be golden in complexion and should wear blue garments. The statue of Indra is placed on an elephant, Airavata (one of the fourteen gems found in Samundra Manthan) which have four tusks. The eyes of the image of Indra are made to show the eyes placed crookedly towards the forehead. Along with the image of Indra, the statue of his wife Shachi is also placed. The idol of Indra should have four hands holding a lotus and an elephant goad in right hands and the vajra (made of sage Dadhichi’s bones) in the left hand. Another hand of left side should be placed behind the idol of his wife. Importance of Indra:
Why Indra not so popular today: There are many explanations given by scholars:
All of us have certain negative traits such as anger, lust, jealousy, addiction, dishonesty etc. Like Indra, we should use our potential to destroy these negative traits and liberate ourselves.
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Agni is the element fire, more precisely the god of fire. In Rigveda, Agni is the second most important deity on the basis of his influence and magnitude. Around 200 hymns are addressed to him in the Rigveda. Agni is considered as the mediator between the deities and the devotees or sages.
Agni is the first of the powers, the unspoiled and foremost. Agni is the form, the fire, the forceful heat and flaming will of conscious force of Divinity. As a flaming Force of knowledge, he descends to build up the worlds and seated within them, a secret deity, initiates movement and action. Agni is a truth-consciousness soul, a seer, a priest and a worker, - the immortal worker in man. His mission is to purify all that he works upon and to rise up the soul struggling in Nature from obscurity to the light. The other gods awake with the Dawn, but Agni wakes also in the night; he keeps divine vision in the Darkness. No sacrifice is possible without Agni. He is at once the flame on the alter and the priest of the oblation. Agni destroys and purifies. His very hunger and desire, infinite in its scope, prepares the establishment of a higher universal order. He attains the immortality and maintains unhurt its law of truth and joy in the human creature. In the end we overpass all crookedness of falsehood and error. The duality of truth and falsehood, light and light and darkness, conceptional right and wrong are the confusions of knowledge born of egoistic divisions; the dualities of egoistic love and hatred, joy and grief, pleasure and pain are the confusions of Love, perversities of Ananda; the dualities of strength and weakness, sin and virtue, action and inaction, are the confusions of will, dissipaters of the divine force. Agni is the Divine Will which enlightens us. Forms of Agni: Agni is light as well as force. He is also the fire that assimilates and the heat energy that forms. He is the heat of life and creates the sap, the rasa in the things. Agni is said to have ten forms. They are lightning, fire, sun, absorbing fire, destructive fire, fire yielded through sticks used for sacrifices and rituals, fire given to a student during his Upanayana ceremony, domestic fire used for household uses, southern fire of ancestors used for some types of rituals and funeral fire in cremation rituals. The ancient seers divided Agni into three parts, Garhapatya (for general domestic use), Aahavaniya (for inviting and welcoming a deity or personage) and Dakshinagni (for fighting against all evil). Birth & Appearance of Agni: The birth of Agni is associated with the manifestation or vision of luminous herds. God Agni is the flame, the power and priest of the sacrifice; - by the word, and Brihaspati is the father of the Word. Agni is said to be the eldest son of Brahma. In another version, he is said to be the son of Dharma (eternal law) and Vasubhaarya (wife of light). In later writings, Agni is said to be the son of Sage Angiras who discovered fire and its uses. Agni is represented by two heads, one head marking immortality and the other marking an unknown symbol of life. He is said to have two or seven hands, four horns and three legs. His seven hands represent the seven flames or Swastika and the three legs represent the three worlds which he reigns. His pot belly denotes his love for rich oily food. His consorts are svaha and svadha. Agni is the lord of household activities. No religious activity is possible without Agni. Agni lavishes wealth and dispels the darkness. His vehicle is said to be the ram which is a sacrificial animal and connected with rituals. His descriptions are varied. He carries a flaming javelin in one of his hands. Divine Potentialities of Agni: Externally, offerings (oblations) are done in Vedic sacrifice (also called Yajna) along with Vedic mantras to please the Vedic gods and to get material prosperity. The oblation signifies always action (Karma) and each action of mind or body is regarded as a giving of our plenty into the cosmic being and the cosmic intention. In the conscient offering, he comes in front; he is the priest set in front (Purohit), guides the oblation and determines the effectiveness. Agni manifests divine potentialities in a death-besieged body; Agni brings them to effective actuality and perfection. He creates in us the luminous forms of the immortals. Internally, the flame of Agni is the divine Will. The divine Will-Force is that of which all the other godheads are forms and he manifests all these powers of supreme truth as he grows in us. Hymns of Agni gives the purity, the power, the knowledge, the increasing riches, the faculty of new formation and spiritual productiveness by which the mortal grows into immortality. It destroys the enemy, the assailants, the powers of evil, enriches the soul with all they try to withhold, gives the triple peace and the triple fulfilment of the mental, vital and physical being and, labouring in the light of the supramental Truth, leads beyond, creating in us the world of immortal felicity. No religious activity is possible without Agni. The Vedic sacrifice is, psychologically, a symbol of cosmic and individual activity become self-conscious, enlightened and aware of its goal. The whole process of the universe is in its very nature of sacrifice, voluntary or involuntary. Agni, the Divine Will-Force in Rigveda: A few hymns in Rigveda on Agni are illustrated as under: कथा दाशेमाग्नये कास्मै देवजुष्टोच्यते भामिने गीः | यो मर्त्येष्वम्र्त रतावा होता यजिष्ठ इत कर्णोति देवान || (Rig Veda I.77.1) English Translation - What should we give to and what speech is agreeable to enlightened persons and liked by them should be addressed to this Agni (Preacher of Truth) who has noble indignation to root out evil and injustice, who as a soul realises that he is immortal spirit among the perishable bodies, observant of truth, receiver and giver of knowledge, unifier who makes people full of divine virtues and learned. You should give him as we do. अग्निम अछा देवयताम मनांसि चक्षूंषीव सूर्ये सं चरन्ति | यद ईं सुवाते उषसा विरूपे शवेतो वाजी जायते अग्रे अह्नाम || (Rig Veda 5.1.4) The minds of men who grow in the godhead move entirely towards the flame of Will even as all their seeing converge in the Sun that illumines. When two Dawns of opposite forms (one day) are delivered of him, he is born as the White Horse in front of the days. वि जयोतिषा बर्हता भात्य अग्निर आविर विश्वानि कर्णुते महित्वा | परादेवीर मायाः सहते दुरेवाः शिशीते शर्ङगे रक्षसे विनिक्षे || (Rig Veda 5.2.9) Agni in the form of sun (sun-light or knowledge) etc. shines with great radiance. This flame of Will shines out with the vast light of Truth and makes all things manifest by the greatness of him. He overpowers the formations of knowledge that are undivine and of an evil movement; he sharpens his horns to gore the Rakshasa or germs of diseases. (In the same manner, one should dispel al un-divine deceitful intellect or ideas which lead to evil outcome from all sides.) तवम अग्ने वरुणो जायसे यत तवम मित्रो भवसि यत समिद्धः | तवे विश्वे सहसस पुत्र देवास तवम इन्द्रो दाशुषे मर्त्याय || (Rig Veda 5.3.1) O Will, you are Varuna, (who represents the ethereal purity and oceanic wideness of the infinite Truth), O Will, when you are born; you become Mitra, (the all-embracing harmony of the Truth, the Friend of all beings, therefore the Lord of Love), when all the gods entirely kindled. in you, O son of Force; you are the Indra, (Ruler of our being, Master of Swar which is the luminous world of the Divine mind) for the mortal who gives the offering. विशां कविं विश्पतिम मानुषीणां शुचिम पावकं घर्तप्र्ष्ठम अग्निम | नि होतारं विश्वविदं दधिध्वे स देवेषु वनते वार्याणि || (Rig Veda 5.4.3) Will that be the Seer and Lord of the creature in the human peoples, that is pure and purifies, with his surface of the mind’s clarities, Will omnisciently hold in you as the priest of your oblations, for this is he that wins for you your desirable boons in the godheads. स हि दयुभिर जनानां होता दक्षस्य बाह्वोः | वि हव्यम अग्निर आनुषग भगो न वारम रण्वति || (Rig Veda 5.16.2) The Will is the priest of offering of the peoples; by the illuminations of the discerning mind he is the giver of strength of the arms, the continuous order of their offerings and as the divine enjoyer (Bhaga) he moves to his good. परातर अग्निः पुरुप्रियो विश सतवेतातिथिः | विश्वानि यो अमर्त्यो हव्या मर्तेषु रण्यति || (Rig Veda 5.18.1) Let the Will be affirmed in the dawning (The dawning of the divine Dawn of the higher knowledge in the mind). guest of the creature with his many delights who, immortal in mortals, takes joy in all their offerings. यम अग्ने वाजसातम तवं चिन मन्यसे रयिम | तं नो गीर्भिः शरवाय्यं देवत्रा पनया युजम || (Rig Veda 5.20.1) – O Will, O conqueror of our plenitude, the felicity which you alone can conceive in the mind, that make full of inspiration by our words and set it to labour in the gods as our helper. देवं वो देवयज्ययाग्निम ईळीत मर्त्यः | समिद्धः शुक्र दीदिह्य रतस्य योनिम आसदः ससस्य योनिम आसदः || (Rig Veda 5.21.4) Let mortal man adore the Will, the divine, by sacrifice to the powers divine; but you, O Brightness, shine out high kindled; enter into the home of the Truth, enter into the home of the Bliss. 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In the chapter 4 in Section 5 of Kailash-Samhita of Shiva Purana, Shiva informed about the conduct of Sanyasi.
The devotee shall get up in the Brahma Muhurta and think about the preceptor Shiva seated in the thousand-petalled lotus on the head. He shall bow to the preceptor with palms joined in reverence and worship him with scents, fragrant flowers etc. created by his imagination. He shall pray thus — “O lord, let whatever I do from morning till sunset and from sunset till daybreak be your worship.” After intimating to the preceptor thus and securing the permission he shall retain the breath and sit down, with his mind and the sense-organs under full control. He shall then meditate on the six-fold wheels from the root to the Brahma Randhra. In the middle he shall think of the Nirguṇa Sadashiva, free from ailment, the great Brahman, with the lustre of crores of lightning, identical with splendour, with the body of existence, knowledge and bliss. He will do daily course and take bath. The Sandhya prayers shall be performed with thoughts on the preceptor. After performing the Achamana twice he shall take the ashes repeating the Sadyadi mantra. Then repeating the mantras “Agniriti” he shall touch the body. Repeating the mantra “Apo vai”— he shall mix the ashes with water. He shall make two balls of the pasted ashes with the mantras “Om Apo Jyoti” and “Ma Nastok” — He shall divide one of the balls into five and apply each respectively to the head, face, chest, private parts and the feet. He shall repeat the mantra beginning with “Ishana”— and ending with “Sadya.” After applying the ashes, he shall repeat Om touching all the parts of the body. He shall wash his hands, feet and take the other ball. Adoring as before he shall apply three parallel lines on the forehead repeating the mantra ‘Tryayuṣa’ and the ‘Tryambaka’. He shall apply the same on the chest with the Praṇava and on the shoulders with “Oṃ Namaḥ Shivaya.” Uttering Panchikaraṇa mantra, the scholarly ascetic shall think of his preceptor. In the manner as explained hereafter he shall perform six Praṇayamas. Touching the navel, the joints of the arms and the back in order he shall wash both the hands duly and perform Achamana twice. He shall take some water in the right hand and cover it with the left hand. Praṇava is then repeated twelve times. Sprinkling this water thrice on the head he shall drink water thrice meditating on Omkara—Shiva with pure mind — Shiva who is stationed in the middle of the solar disc, the god consisting of all splendour, possessing eight arms, four faces, the wonderful form half-female, endowed with wonderful qualities and bedecked in ornaments. After meditating thus duly he shall offer three Arghyas. After performing the Japa of Gayatri hundred and eight times, he shall offer Tarpaṇa twelve times. After performing the Achamana he shall perform Pranayama thrice. Then he shall go to the hall of worship thinking on Shiva. After reaching the door he shall wash his feet silently and perform Achamana twice. He shall enter it duly placing the right foot at first. Inside the Maṇḍapa there, he, the intelligent ascetic, shall draw the mystic diagram (Yantra) in due order and worship. The chapters 15 of Section 5 of Kailash-saṃhita of Shiva Purana expound Creation, Sustenance & Dissolution.
Shiva is associated with Maya Shakti on his left. He is Saguṇa and Vyasti - set of four comprising Ishvara, Vishveshvara, Parameshvara and Sarveshvara. He is the excellent Tirobhavacakra. Tirobhava is twofold. One concerns Rudra, the other the individual souls in view of their physical bodies. The Tirobhava Cakra consists of the Shantikala. This excellent region is presided over by Maheshvara. This region is attainable by those who serve Mahesha etc. It yields Salokya liberation to the devotees of Maheshvara. Dissolution: The image Rudra is born of a thousandth part of Maheshvara. He has Aghora for his face. He is the lord of the principle of fire. He is associated with Gaurishakti on his left. Rudra region is attainable by those who desire the propitiation of Rudras. It yields the Sayujya of Rudras gradually through Salokya. He is the cause of dissolution of the universe. Dissolution has been classified into three. The first Nitya is the daily slumber of living beings. The second is the conditioned dissolution of Brahma. The third is the final dissolution. Sustenance: Vishnu was born from a thousandth part of Rudra. In the form of Vamadeva wheel. He is the presiding deity of the principle of water. He is associated with Lakshmi Shakti on the left. He is the protector of all. He has four arms. He has eyes as splendid as the lotus. He is dark-complexioned and bears the characteristics of Shankha etc. Sustenance means the protection of the existing universe along with its creator until the completion of the pleasures of the souls, the reapers of the fruit. Protection is the activity of Vishnu. In the sustenance also the lord has five activities, viz; creation etc. This region is attainable by those who serve the lotus-feet of Vishnu. This wheel yields Salokya etc. to the devotees of Vishnu. Creation: Brahma was born of a thousandth part of Vishnu. He has the face of Sadyojata and is the presiding deity of the principle of earth. He is accompanied by the goddess of speech on his left. He is the creator and lord of the universe. He has four faces. He is red in complexion and his form is possessed of Rajas attribute. This wheel of creation is the cause of Brahma’s sons and other sages. It bestows desires and happiness to the devotee. Creation is the process of re-unification of the soul with the body previously annihilated—the body which along with the means, ancillaries and results comes out of Prakriti for gradual enjoyment. It is pleasing as long as it holds good. This region is attainable by those who have dedicated their minds to Brahma. This indeed bestows Salokya and other liberations on the devotees of Brahma. The wheel of creation is dependent on golden splendour and is surrounded by water encompassed by fire. Fire is surrounded by wind; wind by ether; ether by the primordial element and that by intellect. Intellect is encompassed by the unmanifest. Such are the seven sheaths which protect the universe. The world above is ten times more than the one below. Shiva alone accompanied by Shakti performs incessant sports through blessing, disappearance, dissolution, sustenance and creation. Discoveries and inventions in modern science & technology began at the end of 15th century in Europe with Ptolemaic astronomical system. However, the discoveries & inventions under various disciplines of modern science were already put place in ancient India much before the European Scientists started. Unfortunately, due to foreign invasions in India the discoveries and inventions done by the Indian scientists (Rishis) were not globally recognized.
Indigenous Knowledge in India is an Ocean, vast, deep & diverse. Indian disciplinary formations include fields as diverse as philosophy, architecture, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, metrics, sociology (dharma-shastra), economy and polity (arthashastra), ethics, geography, logic, military science, weaponry, agriculture, mining, trade and commerce, metallurgy, mining, shipbuilding, medicine, poetics, biology and veterinary science. In each of these a continuous and cumulative series of texts continues to be available in spite of widespread loss and historically recorded destruction. Indian knowledge system mentions 18 major vidyas, or theoretical disciplines; and 64 kalas, applied or vocational disciplines, crafts. The 18 vidyas are: the four Vedas, the four subsidiary Vedas (Ayurveda – medicine, Dhanurveda – weaponry, Gandharvaveda – music and Silpa – architecture), Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharmasastra and Vedanga, the six auxiliary sciences, phonetics, grammar, metre, astronomy, ritual, and philology — these formed the basis of the 18 sciences in ancient India. British rule fabricated a new history of India to ensure that present and future generations of mentally colonised people to believe in the inferiority of their ancient knowledge and the superiority of the western ‘modern’ knowledge. This has been called ‘Macaulayism’, named after Lord Macaulay, who successfully championed this colonial strategy from the 1830s. To know about the rich heritage of India, some of the acclaimed works and rich heritage of India have been produced here to inspire young generations. Mathematics – Baudhayana (Born in 800 BC) - 1. He was the first-ever Indian Mathematician who came up with several concepts in Mathematics. 2. In a shloka of his Sulbasutra, he gave Pythagoras’s Theorem, at least 1000 years before Pythagoras. 3. The value of pi was first calculated by him. Aryabhatt (Born in 476 CE in Kusumpur, Bihar) – 1. He was first to calculate p (Pi) to four decimal places: 3.1416 and the sine table in trigonometry. Centuries later, in 825 CE, the Arab mathematician, Mohammed Ibna Musa credited the value of Pi to the Indians. 2. He gave the concept of zero without which modern computer technology would have been non-existent. Mahaviracharya (Born in 8th CE) – He explained “Least Multiplication Method” to solve arithmetic problems which was introduced much later by John Napier. Bhaskaracharya (Born in 12th CE in Bijapur, Karnataka) – In his book Siddhant Shiromani, he divided it into four sections viz. Arithmetic, Algebra, Sphere and mathematics of planets. He introduced cyclic method to solve algebraic problems which was re-discovered six centuries later by Europeans. Physics - Bhaskaracharya (Born in 1114 BCE in Vijjadit near Jalgaon, Maharashtra) He was first to discover the force of gravity, 500 years before Sir Isaac Newton, i.e., objects fall on earth due to a force of attraction by the earth and the earth, planets, constellations, moon, and sun are held in orbit due to this attraction. Chemistry - Acharya Kanad (Born in 600 BCE in Prabhas Kshetra, Dwarka, Gujarat) – Founder of Chemistry & Atomic Theory - He has expounded that every object of creation is made of atoms which in turn connect with each other to form molecules. He gave Atomic Theory for the first time ever in the world, nearly 2500 years before John Dalton. He also described the dimension and motion of atoms and their chemical reactions with each other. Nagarjuna (Born in 100 BCE in Baluka, Madhya Pradesh) – Wizard of Chemistry He discovered the alchemy of transmuting base metals into gold. Botany – Varahmihir (Born in 499 BCE in Ujjain Madhya Pradesh) –
Cosmology - Acharya Kapil (Born in 600 BCE in Nainijor village in the Bhojpur District of Bihar) – Father of Cosmology – He revealed the secrets of creation. Astronomy – Vedanga Jyotiṣa (700-600 BCE) – One of the oldest astronomical texts, it details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation. It also details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhikamasa, twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time. Aryabhatt (Born in 476 CE in Kusumpur, Bihar) – In 499 CE, at the age of 23, He formulated the process of calculating the motion of planets and the time of eclipses. Aryabhatt was the first to proclaim that the earth is round, it rotates on its axis, orbits the sun and is suspended in space – 1000 years before Copernicus published his heliocentric theory. In India, navagrah puja is from time immemorial which has sun in centre and planets rotating around it. Bhaskaracharya (Born in 1114 BCE in Vijjadit near Jalgaon, Maharashtra) He elucidated planetary positions, eclipses, cosmography, mathematical techniques and astronomical equipment. Engineering & Metallurgy – Archaeological sites in such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present-day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements from the period between 1800 BCE and 1200 BCE. Smelting of iron, zinc etc. was found to be well established since 13th century BC. Nataraja statue the god of dance is made of five metals Pancha Dhatu and Iron Pillar, Delhi is as a silent witness to assert the striking metallurgical skill of the Hindus. Paintings found on walls of Ajanta and Ellora also testify to the high level of chemical science achieved in ancient India. Medical Science - Acharya Charak (Born in 600 BCE in North west India) – Father of Medicine - He revealed the facts on human anatomy, embryology, pharmacology, blood circulation and diseases like diabetes, tuberculosis, heart disease, etc. In the Charak Samhita, he has described the medicinal qualities and functions of 100,000 herbal plants. He has emphasized the influence of diet and activity on mind and body. He has proved the correlation of spirituality and physical health contributed greatly to diagnostic and curative sciences. He prescribed the ethical charter for medical practitioners two centuries prior to the Hippocratic oath. Acharya Sushrut (Born in 600 BCE in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh) – Father of Plastic Surgery & Surgery – In Sushrut Samhita, a unique encyclopaedia of surgery, he prescribed the science of plastic surgery and the science of anaesthesia. He performed Rhinoplasty (restoration of a damaged nose) and other challenging operations much before the allopathic doctors in Europe. He prescribed treatment for twelve types of fractures and six types of dislocations. He described the human embryology. He used 125 types of surgical instruments including scalpels, lancets, needles, Cathers and rectal speculums; mostly designed from the jaws of animals and birds. He has also described a number of stitching methods; the use of horse’s hair as thread and fibres of bark. He gave details of 300 types of operations. The ancient Indians were the pioneers in cataract surgery, amputation, caesarean and cranial surgeries. Acharya Patanjali (Born in 200 BCE in Gonda, Uttar Pradesh) – Father of Yoga – He prescribed the control of breath as the means to control the body, mind and soul. He prescribed 84 yogic postures effectively enhance the efficiency of the respiratory, circulatory, nervous, digestive and endocrine systems and many other organs of the body. He was a pioneer in the science of self-discipline, happiness and self-realization. Aviation – Acharya Bharadwaj (Born in 800 BCE, in Uttar Pradesh) – Pioneer of Aviation Technology – In his Yantra Sarvasva, he mentioned the discoveries in aviation science, space science and flying machines. He has described three categories of flying machines viz. that flies on earth from one place to another, that travels from one planet to another and that travels from one universe to another. He explained the designs and descriptions of flying machines. He described the techniques to make a flying machine invisible through the application of sunlight and wind force and to make an invisible space machine visible through the application of electrical force. He also described the techniques to listen to a conversation in another plane and to see what’s happening inside another plane. Language and Literature - Panini (Born in 520 BCE in in Shalatula, a town near to Attock on the Indus River in present day Pakistan) - He was a Sanskrit grammarian who gave a comprehensive and scientific theory of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Panini is considered the founder of the language and literature. In Astadhyayi, he distinguishes between the language of sacred texts and the usual language of communication. Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar. Starting with about 1700 basic elements like nouns, verbs, vowels, consonants he put them into classes. The construction of sentences, compound nouns etc. is explained as ordered rules operating on underlying structures in a manner similar to modern theory. In many ways Panini's constructions are similar to the way that a mathematical function is defined today. A PhD scholar, Rishi Atul Rajpopat in St. John’s College, Cambridge, has cracked a grammatical problem posed by the texts authored by Panini (December, 2022). Rajpopat finds that Paṇini’s algorithms produce grammatically correct words and sentences without errors. “Teaching computers how to combine the speaker’s intention with Panini’s rule-based grammar to produce human speech would be a major milestone in the history of human-machine interaction, as well as in India’s intellectual history,” Rajpopat explains. Theatrologist and musicologist - Bharata Muni (Birth estimate vary between 500 BCE & 500 CE) – He wrote the Natya Shastra, a theoretical treatise on ancient Indian dramaturgy and histrionics, especially Sanskrit theatre. Bharata is considered the father of Indian theatrical art forms. The Natya Shastra is notable as an ancient encyclopaedic treatise on the arts, which has influenced dance, music and literary traditions in India. It is also notable for its aesthetic “Rasa” theory, which asserts that entertainment is a desired effect of performance arts. Besides propounding a theory of three types of acting, Bharata discusses in detail the classical Indian vocal/instrumental music and dance integral to Tamil drama. Bharata classified Sanskrit theatrical forms (Natyam/Rupaka) into ten types, of which drama (nataka) is one. Bharata also outlines a set of rasas or moods/emotions that were to be influential in defining the nature of Indian dance, music, and theatre. Governance, Military Strategy and Economics - Chanakya (Born in 350 BC in Bihar) He was the brain behind King Chandra Gupta Maurya (317-293 BCE), which led to consolidation of the Mauryan empire and ushered in the Golden Age of India. The strategy propounded by Kautilya (Chanakya) was the treatise Arthashastra, a comprehensive compendium of the art of ruling a kingdom and defeating one’s enemies. The Arthashastra is a vast compendium comprising 15 books, which are divided into 150 chapters, 180 sections and 6000 shlokas. The treatise is essentially a treatise on the art of governance and covers all aspects required for a society to function internally, and as a nation-state in its relations externally. It covers the aspects of statecraft, war to diplomacy, revenue sources and taxation, commodity prices and their taxes, standardisation of weights and measures, the organisation of the army, descriptions of forts and defences. Interestingly, there exists a very prominent mention of the Navy. For ensuring a successful military strategy, Kautilya has covered in detail the organisation and management of the army. The greatness of Shiva – Shiva Purana
In the chapter 1 in Section 5 of Uma-saṃhita of Shiva Purana, Upamanyu narrated the greatness of Shiva. Formerly Krishna, son of Vasudeva went to Kailasa to perform the penance to propitiate Shiva for obtaining a son. He saw the sage Upamanyu performing the penance there, he bowed to him with devotion and asked him with palms joined in reverence. Lord Krishna said: -- “O Upamanyu of great intellect, I have come here to perform the panance of Shiva for obtaining a son. O sage, please narrate the greatness of Shiva, on hearing which I shall perform the penance of Shiva with devotion.” Upamanyu informed that while performing penance, he himself has witnessed the greatness of Shiva and narrated as under: “I saw Shiva, his weapons, his followers and Vishnu and other gods. He was shining with his three parts. He was of permanent happiness. He was imperishable. He had one foot and huge teeth with feces having mouthfuls of blazing flame. He was shining with the brilliance of two thousand rays. He was whirling excellent missiles. He had many eyes and a thousand legs. He who decisively annihilates the universe at the end of a kalpa and for whom there was none to be spared from death in the three worlds consisting of the mobile and immobile beings which being cast away from his hands burnt instantaneously and entirely, certainly within half a moment. While performing penance, I saw at the side of Rudra the imperishable highly secret weapon which had no other missile superior or equal to it. It was the weapon Vijaya, the trident of the fierce weapon that destroyed all other weapons and missiles. There is no doubt that it could pierce through the entire earth, dry up the big ocean and cause all the luminary bodies to fall. It was the weapon with which Yauvanashva the emperor of great refulgence and Mandhatr the powerful king who conquered the three worlds were killed formerly. The arrogant Haihaya king was killed with it. When the demon Lavana challenged king Shatrughna this missile was hurled at him. When that demon was killed, this trident had returned to Rudra. It had a sharp point and was highly terrifying. I saw his sharp-edged axe decorated with serpents etc. It was as terrible as the god of death holdingthe noose in his hand. It was like an indescribable ray of the sun and the features of the fire at the end of Kalpas. It had the size of a full-grown man. Parshurama had used it in the battle for the extermination of Kṣatriyas. I saw the discus Sudarshana in the shape of a human being with a thousand faces and two thousand hands. It was divine and lordly. It had two thousand eyes of fiery brilliance, and one thousand legs. It shone like a crore suns. It was capable of burning the three worlds. I saw the sharp and refulgent thunderbolt of hundred spikes of extreme excellence. I saw the great bow Pinaka of excessive brilliance and its quiver of arrows. I saw the Shakti, the sword, the noose of great brilliance and a goad, the great divine iron club, and many other weapons. On either side of Lord Rudra, I saw the weapons of the guardians of the quarters. To the right of the lord was Brahma, the grandfather of the worlds seated in his aerial chariot fitted with a swan. It was divine and as speedy as mind. Narayaṇa, holding conch, discus and mace, stood on bis left, seated on the Garuḍa. Brahma and other Manus, Bhṛgu and other sages, Indra and other gods, all were there. Holding his Shakti and a bell and seated on his peacock, Skanda (Kartikeya) stood near the goddess like another fìregod. Nandin stood in front of Shiva holding the trident. All the goblins, Gaṇas and the mothers were present there. Bowing to lord Shiva and surrounding him on all sides, the gods eulogised the lord with different kinds of hymns. O Krishna, it appeared as though some sacrifice was going on there. In that sacrifice I became immersed in great delight. I was bold to a great extent on seeing Parvati front. With palms joined in reverence and words choked with tears of joy I worshipped him duly with various kinds of hymns. Then the delighted lord Shiva spoke to me laughingly in sweet words with great pleasure: “O brahmin, you cannot be shaken by me though I try again and again. You have been tested by me. Welfare be to you You are steadily endowed with devotion. I am delighted. Choose the boon. There is nothing which cannot be given to you even if it happens to be something rare and inaccessible to all the gods.” Upamanyu said: -- “O lord, if you are satisfied and if my devotion is firm and steady, may, in virtue of that truth, my knowledge comprehends the past, present and future. Grant me infinite devotion never swerving or straying from you. Let me and my family have milk pudding every day. O lord, may you be present in my hermitage every day. Let my mutual friendship with your other devotees, flourish for ever.” Shiva said: -- “O Upamanyu, O dear, O sage, you will be free from the defects of old age and death. Achieve all desires. You will deserve the worship of the sages. You will have fame as your wealth. Thanks to my grace, step by step, you will possess good conduct, beauty, good qualities and riches. O sage, wherever you wish it to be, the milk ocean will flow to and be present there. May your family be never-ending due to my grace. I shall be always present in your hermitage. Let your devotion to me be permanent. O dear one, whenever remembered by you I shall appear before you. You are by all means my beloved. Be happy realising all your desires. Do not get anxious or worried. There is no doubt that everything you think of will be fulfilled.” Upamanyu said: -- “After granting me the boons and saying this, lord Shiva of the brilliance of a crore sun vanished there itself. The lord is omniscient, the soul and the material and effective cause of all living beings. He is all-pervasive and visible to all deities. Hence, propitiate him for the acquisition of a son. Shiva, favourably disposed to his devotees will become delighted with you, soon.”  Shiva, the bestower of blessings – Shiva Purana
In the chapter 2 in Section 5 of Uma-saṃhita of Shiva Purana, Upamanyu narrated to Shri Krishna on His asking, the the details of the persons who have attained their desires by propitiating Shiva. Upamanyu said to Shri Krishna: -- “O leading scion of the family of Yadus, I shall enumerate the various devotees, by whom the cherished desires of their hearts have been realised through the propitiation of Shva. Please listen.
Symbolism of Shiva
Shiva (Sanskrit: “Auspicious One”) is aspect of supreme being, explained as Brahman in the Upanishads that continuously dissolves to recreate the universe. Shiva, i.e., formless, pure, eternal, root of cosmic sound “Om”, originator of Vedas, creator of oldest language “Sanskrit” and dance. Shiva is known by many names – Mahadeva, Mahayogi, Pasupati, Nataraja, Bhairava, Vishwanath, Bhava, Bholenath and so on. Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer. Shiva is the original creator of world, language, dance, music, yoga etc. According to the Shiva Purana, Brahma lacked the power to create women, until Shiva appeared before him in the androgynous form of Ardhanarishvara, “the Lord whose half is woman”, the right being the male manifestation. Panchanana Form of Shiva - In some temples Shiva is shown with five faces. Each of the faces has a name and represents a specific aspect. These five faces are Isana, Tatpurusa, Aghora, Vamadeva and Sadyojata.
Attributes: Tulsidas ji who composed Ram Charit Manas, has explained the various attributes of Shiva in the devotional hymn "Rudrashtakam" appear in the Uttara Kand of Ram Charit Manas. The above hymn explains the attributes of Shiva as under:
The ash is not a normal one, but instead the ash from a cemetery. It corresponds to the Hindu philosophy of life and death, that death is the ultimate reality of life. The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal Self and spiritual liberation is important.
The three matted locks on the head symbolizes the idea of integration of physical, mental and spiritual energies is the ideal of yoga. So, Shiva is master of yoga.
The right side of the body symbolizes the human activities based upon knowledge, reason and logic. It signifies Shiva preserves natural order in the universe. The snake also denotes dormant energy of a man, also called Kundalini energy.
It is believed that the Rudraksha contains the secrets of the entire evolution of Cosmos within it. Disciples devoted to Lord Shiva always wear Rudraksha to lead a peaceful life and also for deeper meditation. It helps maintain good health, gain self-empowerment and lead a fearless life.
In the scriptures, it is said that when Shiva mode of creation, his damru vibrates 14 times. These 14 basic formulae contain all the alphabets in Sanskrit arranged in ways to facilitate various grammatical processes. Therefore, the Damaru represents alphabets, grammar, and language itself.
The tiger in Hindu dharma represents the vehicle of Shakti, the Goddess of power and force. Shiva wearing the tiger skin represents his power and that he is the master of Shakti that goes beyond any other force. Tiger also represents lust, and Shiva sitting on it shows that he has conquered lust.
 In Vedic period, the people felt the presence of Supreme Being (Omniscient, Omnipresent & Omnipotent) presiding over the forces of nature existed in the three realms of universe and connected with the almighty by worshiping these visible forces. The importance these deities continued three yugas (Satya, Treta & Dwapar). In Dwapar yug, Kunti, wife of Pandu, conceived her sons’ using mantras of Vedic deities - Karna from Surya, Yudhishtra from Yamraja, Bhima from Vayu, Arjuna from Indra, Nakul & Sehdev from Ashvins. Even today, the worship of Vedic deities brings not only material prosperity but also spiritual enlightenment.
Internal Relevance of Vedic Deities: Sri Aurobindo, modern philosopher highlighted the relevance of each deity in the human body and the hymns dedicated to the deities (devatas). The human body is similar to the body of the Cosmic Self, Purusha, who manifested in creation as the Lord of the Universe. The Vedic deities preside over the various attributes of human body.
The cosmic manifestation is grossly divided into three worlds, the upper, lower and middle regions. In Rig Veda (Mandala 3.62.10), the highly revered mantra i.e., Gayatri Mantra is mentioned. Its recitation is traditionally preceded by Om and the formula bhur bhuvaḥ svaḥ. Om - Primeval sound; Bhur - Earth, Physical realm, Human Body; Bhuva - Antariksha, Intermediate Space, Consciousness, Prana, Vital energies; Suvah - Sky, Heaven, Soul, Spiritual realm, bliss. The Vedic Deities are classified into these three realms:
Based upon the number of invocations available in the Vedas, two other categories of the following Vedic deities were worshipped:
Characteristics of Prominent Vedic Deities:
According to the Kena Upanishad, he is the only god to have gone nearest to Brahman and was to know Him as Brahman. Humans worshipped Lord Indra as the strength until the completion of the first three ages. Till the completion of the third age (Dwapar yug), the idea of Supreme Being had been established in peoples’ minds. Lord Krishna had stopped the trend of Indra worship in his childhood and humans started a trend of worshipping Krishna in the name of Gowardhana.
Hymns of Vedic deities in Rigveda: Each hymn in Rigveda is given to a certain deity (devata) and that particular Deva is worshipped through hymns in his praise. The main deities are Indra, Agni, Soma and Surya. Each of the Gods has his consort, like Indra and Indrani, Varuna and Varunani. There are 33 Devas in Rigveda. The prominent deities are: The number of hymns in Rigveda are dedicated the Vedic deities are mentioned in bracket witnessing their importance - Indra (250), Agni (200), Soma (123), Ashvins (56), Varuna (46), Maruts (38), Mitra (28), Ushas (21), Vayu (12), Savitr (11), Rbhus (11), Pushan (10), Apris (9), Birhaspati (8), Surya (8), Dyauṣ Pitr and Pṛithvi Matr (Heaven and Earth) 6, plus 5.84 dedicated to Earth alone; Apas (6), Adityas (6), Vishnu (4 plus 2 paired hymns 1.155 dedicated to Vishnu-Indra & hymn 6.69 dedicated to Indra-Vishnu, total of 5 i.e. 4+1/2+1/2), Brahmanaspati (6), Rudra (4 plus a paired hymn 6.74 dedicated to both Soma-Rudra. A total of 41/2 i.e. 4+1/2), Dadhikras (4), Yama (4), Sarasvati (3), Parjanya (3), Vac (2), Vastospati (2), Vishvakarman (2), Manyu (2), Kapinjala (the Heathcock, a form of Indra - 2) and minor deities (one single or no dedicated hymn). Some dedications are to paired deities, such as Indra-Agni, Mitra-Varuna, and Soma-Rudra, here counted double. Visvedevas (all gods together) have been invoked 70 times. Reference:
 Incarnations of Shiva – Shiva Purana
In the Section 3 of Satarudra–Samhita of Shiva Purana, the countless incarnations of Shiva are mentioned. These incarnations are in fact symbolize the scheme of creation and maintenance of the universe. Other incarnations are for the benefits of devotees and protecting them from evils. Pancha Brahmans: The five famous forms of Shiva are named Ishana, Tatpuruṣa, Aghora, Vamadeva and Sadyojata. Each form stands in relation to a particular element or organ as follows.
Significance - These five faces symbolize the scheme of creation evolved out of twenty-five constituents viz. five gross and five subtle elements, five organs of action and five of knowledge, besides mind, ego, intellect, nature and the individual soul. Ashtmurti Incarnations: The universe consists of the eight essentials viz. earth, water, fire, wind, ether, soul, sun and moon. These essentials are eight incarnations of lord Shiva i.e., Rudra is fire, Sarva is water, Pasupati is plants, Ugra is air, Asani is Vajra, Bhava is Indra, Mahadeva is moon and Ishana is sun. Significance - These eight incarnations made the whole world function Incarnation as Ardhanarishvara: Brahma performed a great penance to enable creation produced by couples. Then the delighted Shiva appeared. Brahma said, “the gods and others were mentally created by me. But they do not multiply themselves. Hence, they are being created again and again. Hereafter I wish to make all my subjects flourish by making the creation originate from pairs.” Shiva spoke to Shakti: “O goddess, yon have been propitiated by Brahma, through his penance. Lovingly become pleased with him and fulfil his desires.” Receiving that behest of lord Shiva with her bent head, the goddess became the daughter of Dakṣha on the importunity of Brahma. Ever since then, creation became copulatory. Significance - Ardhanarishvara (half-male and half-female) is symbolical of the process of creation by copulation. Twenty Incarnations: In the ninth aeon of Dvapara of the seventh Varaha Kalpa, in the Vaivasvata Manvantara, Shiva’s ninth incarnation was as Rsabha to stabilize the path of yoga. Other nineteen incarnations of Shiva took place in other aeons of Dvapara. They were Gangadvara, Satatejas Vyasa (reviver of path of renunciation), Sage Bali, Gautama in the family of Angiras, Vedasiras, Gokarna, Guhavasin, Sikhandin, Jati, Malin, Attahasa, Daruka, Suṣmayaṇa Vyasa, Sveta, Sulin, Sakti Vyasa, Sahisnu, Somasarman and Krishna. Incarnation as Nandi: Silada, a great sage did a severe penance of Shiva and sought a boon for a son equal to him, devoid of death and not born of a womb. Shiva granted the boon and said: “I shall become your son by the name of Nandi. I shall not be born of a womb. Thus, you shall be my father, of me who am the father of the worlds. Incarnation as Bhairava: When deluded by maya, Brahma made fun of Shiva’s form who appeared out of mass of flame, Shiva created Bhairava. Bhairava was with terrifying features. Kala-Bhairava, in a trice, cut off Brahma’s fifth head with the tip of the nails of the fingers of his left hand. Significance - To detach 5th head of Brahma and latter to remain as protector in Kashi and to devour sins of those people who reach Kashi. Incarnation as Sarabha: Another incarnation of Shiva was Sardula. For the benefit of the gods, the wonderfully divine form of a Sarabha (the mythological animal with eight legs and capacity of killing lions) of blazing fire-like lustre was assumed by lord Shiva to control Ugra Narasimha from destroying the Universe. Significance - To control Ugra Narasimha from destroying the Universe. Incarnation as Agnishvara: Grhapati, a son of Brahamin, did great penance of Shiva and secured the title of Agni and the boon that the phallic image installed by him, will be known as Agnishvara and it will be conducive to the enhancement of all splendour. Significance - A person who worships Agnisvara, the bestower of prosperity, at Varanasi, is honoured in the region of fire even if, by chance, he dies elsewhere. Incarnation as Yakṣeshvara: When the gods and the Daityas have churned the milk ocean to get nectar, poison blazing as the fire of dissolution came out at first. They were highly agitated and frightened and sought refuge in Shiva. Shiva quaffed off the terrible poison afflicting gods and Asuras. Shiva retained obliquely the acute poison that he drank, in his neck. He shone much thereby and became Blue-necked. Released from the burning sensation of the poison thanks to the blessings of Shiva, the gods and the Asuras began to churn again. The nectar came out after many gems which was drank by the gods, thanks to the favour of Vishnu. Then a great battle ensued between them inflicting pain on both. The moon was eclipsed by Rahu and fled in terror of Rahu. He went to the abode of Shiva extremely agitated by fear and sought Shiva’s protection. The, Shiva wore the moon on his head as the latter had sought refuge. Then Rahu too, came there and eulogised lord Shiva with reverence. Realising his desire, Shiva fixed on to his neck his head that had been formerly cut off by Vishnu, and that was known as Ketu. Then the Asuras were defeated by the gods in the battle. By drinking nectar, the gods had become powerful and gained victory. Deluded by Shiva’s Maya, Vishnu and others became very haughty. Then Lord Shiva, the suppressor of arrogance, became a Yakṣa. He hastened to the place, where the gods were stationed. Yakṣeshvara said to them: — “O gods, why have you all assembled here. What is your goal? Tell me the reason as I ask unto you.” The gods said: — “O lord, a terrible battle took place here wherein all the Asuras were killed. The few that remained fled away. We are great heroes and powerful slayers of the Daityas. How insignificant in strength are those Daityas in front of us!” On hearing the arrogant words of those gods, lord Shiva, in the form of Yakṣa said: -- “O gods, do not be arrogant. There is another lord who is the creator and annihilator. You have forgotten the great lord. You boast too much but you are devoid of strength. If you are proud and think that you know your strength to be great, O gods, split this blade of grass placed by me, with your own weapons.” Then Vishnu and other gods professing to be heroic exerted their manliness and hurled their respective weapons. But the weapons of the gods, were rendered fruitless before the power of Shiva. Then a celestial voice arose that dispelled the surprise of the gods — “O gods this Yakṣa is Shiva who removes the arrogance of the arrogant.” O hearing the celestial voice they became divested of their arrogance. They had realised Yakṣeshvara. They bowed to and eulogised him. Significance - Yakṣeshvara incarnation of Shiva, that dispels the arrogance of the arrogant and lets the devotion of the good flourish. Ten Incarnations & their significance:
Eleven Incarnations: Kashyapa, the father of asuras, did great penance of Shiva. Shiva on being pleased, was born in eleven forms to Surubhi, the wife of Kashyapa. These eleven Rudras are Kapali, Pingala, Bhima, Virupakṣha, Vilohita, Shastṛa, Ajapada, Ahirbudhnya, Shambhu, Chaṇḍa and Bhava. Significance - The ten Pranas in the body, with the Atman as the eleventh. When they depart from this mortal body, they make one's relatives weep. Because they make them weep (rud), therefore they are called Rudras. Incarnation of Hanuman: Significance - To help Lord Rama in Ramayana. Incarnation of Mahesha: Significance - Urged by the friendship with Bhairava Lord Shiva incarnates as Mahesa to play with him. Incarnation of Bull: Significance - To bring back Lord Vishnu from Patala. Incarnation of Pipplada: Significance - To subdue the pride of Saturn and thus helping people to overcome affliction of Saturn. Incarnation of Vaisyanatha: Significance - To redeem a prostitute named Mahananda who was devotee of Shiva, Lord Shiva goes to her house taking form of Vaishya and finally takes her to Shiva Loka. Incarnation of Dvijaswara: Significance – To test of king Bhadryu by taking form of a Brahmin. Incarnation of Yatinatha Hamsa: Significance – To test of a Bhilla (tribe race) by taking form of Yatinatha. Incarnation of Krishna Darshana: Significance - Lord Shiva taking the form of Krishna Darshana shows that the part left after the Yajna also belongs to him, also Instructs Nabhaga. Incarnation of Avadhutesvara: Significance - Taking the form of Avadhuta Lord Shiva subdues arrogance of Indra and the birth of Jalandhara is triggered from this event. Incarnation of Bhikshuvarya: Significance – To dispel the suspicion of Brahmin women. Incarnation of Sureshwara: Significance - Taking the form of Indra Lord Shiva tested devotion of Upamanyu. Incarnation of Jatila: Significance – To test the Penance of Parvati by taking the form of Jatila. Incarnation of Sunartakanata: Significance - Taking the form of Sunartakanata Lord Shiva goes to Himalayas house to ask hand of Parvati. Incarnation of Sadhu Dvija: Significance - Gods being afraid that Himalaya will attain instant salvation due to giving of Parvati to Shiva request to Shiva to delay salvation of Himalaya. So, Lord Shiva taking the form of Sadhu Dvija goes in front of Himavat and start to insult Lord Shiva. Incarnation of Ashwatthama: Significance - Destruction in the 18th night of Mahabharata war is carried out by Ashwatthama and so on. Incarnation of Kirata: Significance - Lord Shiva taking the form of Kirata tests the war skill and devotion of Arjuna. Other incarnations of Shiva are as Durvasa and the Twelve Jyotirlinga are separately published. Shiva’s incarnations are countless and conducive to the benefit of good devotees. Their number cannot be counted or specified. |
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